Unit1　GreatscientistsBriefStatementsBasedonThisUnitThisunitcentersonGreatscientists,includingsomescientistsbothathomeandabroadlikeJohnSnowandCopernicus.Thestudentsshouldbeencouragedtopractisetalkingaboutthesescientists.Thewholeunitcanbedividedintosevenparts:warmingup,reading,listeningandspeaking,languagefocusing,readingandwriting,grammar,andassessment.Inwarmingup,thereisaquizforthestudentstodo,whichwillarousethestudents’interestinknowingaboutthefamousscientistsandhelpthestudentstoknowscienceisveryimportantinourdailylife.Groupdiscussionandbrainstormingwillbeusedinthisperiodtohelpthestudentstocommunicatewitheachotherusingtheirpreviousknowledge.Inthereadingpassage,thestudentswilllearnaboutJohnSnow,whodefeats“KingCholera”,andgetageneralideaabouthowtoexamineanewscientificidea.Thiswillhelpthestudentstoformtheirownattitudetowardsscience.Inlearningaboutlanguage,thestudentsareencouragedtolearnthefollowingwordsandexpressions:engine,characteristic,radium,theory,scientific,examine,conclude,analyzerepeat,defeat,attend,expose,cure,control,absorb,severe,valuable,blame,immediately,handle,announce,instruct,virus,construction,contribute,positive,movement,backward,complete,enthusiastic,spin,reject,view,steamengine,putforward,drawaconclusion,inaddition,link...to...,bestrictwith,leadto,makesense,pointofview.Whilepractisingusingthelanguage,thestudentswilllearnaboutCopernicus’RevolutionaryTheory,andtheirskillsofreading,speakingandwritingwillbeimproved.Inlisteningandspeaking,morechanceswillbegiventothestudentstolearnaboutotherscientistsandtheirspirit.Thestudentsareencouragedtomakeuptheirmindtomakecontributionstoscience.ThestudentswillbeaskedtowritealettertoCopernicusonthebasisoftheunderstandingofthetext.Thelettersaresuretobefullofimaginationandcreativity.Assessmentwillhelpthestudentstolookbackwhattheyhavelearnedandfocusonthedifficultandimportantpoints.So,thisunitwillbedividedintosevenperiodsasfollows:Period1　WelcometotheUnitPeriod2　ReadingPeriod3　ListeningandSpeakingPeriod4　ReadingandWritingPeriod5GrammarPeriod6　LanguageFocusingPeriod7　AssessmentKnowledgeaims:Keywordsinthisunit:engine,characteristic,radium,theory,scientific,examine,conclude,analyze,repeat,defeat,attend,expose,cure,control,absorb,severe,valuable,blame,immediately,handle,announce,instruct,virus,construction,contribute,positive,movement,backward,complete,enthusiastic,spin,reject,view.Keyphrasesinthisunit:putforward,knowabout,lookinto,inaddition,preventsth.from,doing,leadto,makesense,punishsb.for,suggestdoingsth.steamengine,drawaconclusion,link...to...,bestrictwith,leadto,pointofview.Keysentencepatterns:1Buthebecameinspiredwhenhethoughtabouthelpingordinarypeopleexposedtocholera.2Hegotinterestedintwotheoriesexplaininghowcholerakilledpeople.3Onlyifyouputthesuntheredidthemovementsoftheotherplanetsintheskymakesense.Grammarinthisunit:PastparticipleusedasattributeandpredicativeAbilityaims:1.Totalkaboutgreatscientistsandtheirgreatachievements.2.Toguesswhatwillbetalkedaboutinthelisteningmaterials.3.Toimprovetheirreadingskills.4.Tolearntousepastparticipleasattributeandpredicative.Emotionaims:Toencouragethestudentstolearnaboutsomegreatscientistsandtheirgreatachievementsandhowsciencehelpstoimproveoursocietyandchangeourlife.Meanwhile,inspirethestudentstolearnfromthescientistsandformtheirpositiveattitudetowardsscience.Period1　WelcometotheUnitTheGeneralIdeaofThisPeriodTheunitcenterson“greatscientists”.Thisisthefirstperiodofthisunit.Duringthisperiod,thestudentsshouldbeencouragedtogivetheirpreviousknowledgeofsomeofthefamousscientists,participateintheactivitiesinclassandtrytogetmoreinformationfromthediscussion.Theywilltakepartindifferentformsofactivities,includingpairwork,groupwork,competition,andquiz.Groupcompetitionwillbecarriedoutallthroughtheclass.Wordsandexpressionsinthisunitwillhelpthestudentstotalkaboutthetopic“greatscientists”.Soatthebeginningofthisperiod,theteachershouldspendsometimetrainingthestudentstoreadthemandhelpthestudentspronouncethemcorrectly.Thestudentsareencouragedtolearnthenewwordsingroupsbythemselves,usingdictionariesandotherreferencebooks.Thenmoretimeshouldbegiventothestudentstogetfamiliarwiththewordsandexpressions.Lastly,severalsentenceswillbegiventothestudentstohelpthemtoknowhowtousesomeofthephrases.Thisunitisabout“greatscientists”,sofromtheverybeginning,theteachercanencouragethestudentstalkabouttheirdreamsinthefuture.Thentheteachercanletthestudentsbrainstormsomethingaboutgreatscientists.Thestudentsarefreetosayanythingthattheyknow.Thestudentswillbequiteinterestedinthistopic.Thisactivitygivesthestudentsachancetoexpresstheirfeelingsabouttheirfavoritescientist.Atthesametime,thisactivitycanstirthestudents’enthusiasminscience.Thentheteachercanhavethestudentsmatchthefamousscientistswiththeirdiscoveries,inventionsortheories,makingsurethattheyhavesomecommonsenseaboutsomeworld-famousscientists.Laterthestudentswillbedividedintoseveralgroups,describeoneofthegreatscientistsandletotherstudentsguesswhoheorsheistalkingabout.Inthisway,thestudentsshouldlearntoorganizetheirownsentencesandexpresstheirideasclearly.Afterthat,thestudentswillfeelcomfortabletodothequizinthetext.Thestudentsshouldbe,encouragedtogivemoreinformationaboutthesetenscientists.Meanwhile,thestudents’interestinscientistsandscienceshouldbecultivated.Sotwotopicdiscussionquestions,aswellasthepracticeexercisesaredesigned.Thepost-classactivitiesaredesignedtoarousethestudents’interestinscienceandencouragethemto“DIY—doityourself”intheirdailylifeiftheyhavesomedoubtinsomeareas.TeachingImportantPointsHavethestudentsdiscussgreatscientists.Encouragethestudentstoholdtheirviewsabouttheirfuturecareer.Understandandlearnthefollowingwordsandexpressions:engine,characteristic,radium,theory,scientific,examine,conclude,analyse,repeat,defeat,attend,expose,cure,control,absorb,severe,valuable,blame,immediately,handle,announce,instruct,virus,construction,contribute,positive,movement,backward,complete,enthusiastic,spin,reject,view,steamengine,putforward,drawaconclusion,inaddition,link...to...,bestrictwith,leadto,makesense,pointofview.TeachingDifficultiesWhatcanwelearnfromthescientists?Whatshouldwedoinourdailylifetodevelopourinterestandloveforscience?TeachingAidsCAIequipmentwithaMulti-mediaclassroomandothernormalteachingtools.ThreeDimensionalTeachingAimsKnowledgeAimsLearnsomethingaboutsomefamousscientistsintheworld.Knowabouttheoutstandingdiscoveries,inventionsandtheoriesfromsomewell-knownscientists.Trytounderstandandlearntheimportantwordsandexpressions.AbilityAimsDevelopthestudents’abilityofspeaking.Encouragethestudentstogivemoreinformationaboutthegreatscientists.EmotionalAimsEncouragethestudentstolearnmoreaboutthegreatscientistsandlearnfromthem.Helpthestudentstoformthegoodhabitinlearningandencouragethestudentstotakepartinsocialpractice.Helpthestudentstorealizethatitisscientificspiritthatmakesthosescientistssuccessful.Encouragethestudentstodeveloptheirloveforscience.TeachingProcedureStep1GreetingTeacher:Hello,everyone.Teacher:Hello,Mr.../Ms...Step2LeadinT:I’mverygladtoseeyouallhere.Afteralongholiday,allofyoulookenergeticandhappy.Ihopethatwewillworkhardtogetherhappilyallthroughtheyear.Idobelievethatabrightfutureiswaitingforyou.Wearesuretorealizeourdreamsinthenearfuture.Bytheway,I’dliketoknowwhatyouwouldliketobeinthefuture.Letmeshareyourdreams.Anyonewhogivesyourideawillgetastarforyourgroup.Ready?Go!,S:IadmireYangLiweiverymuch,whoisagreathonourtoourmotherland.I’dliketobeanastronautlikehim.T:Yeah,thespacecraft,ShenzhouV,orbitedtheearth14timesin21hours,makingChinathethirdcountrytohavesuccessfullysentanastronautintospace.Ihopeyouwillrealizeyourdream.S:Iwanttobeadoctor.IhopeI’llbeanoutstandingoneandbeexpertinfindingcuresfordifferentkindsofcancers.T:That’sagoodidea.Therearesomanypatientswithcancersintheworld,whoaresufferingalot.Thankyou!S:IwanttobeanEnglishteacherlikeyou.Foronething,IlikeEnglishverymuch;foranother,youarenotonlystrictwithusbutalsopatientwithus.Youarejustourfriendsandmaybemorethanourfriendssometimes.T:I’mreallygladtohearthat.It’smygreathonortobeyourfriendsandIlikemyjobverymuch.S:I’dliketobeanexpertinenvironment.Yousee,withthedevelopmentofindustry,ourglobeisseriouslypolluted.Dirtywater,pollutedair,andloudnoisemakeourlivingconditionsworse.Ithinkweshouldleaveabeautifulworldtothenextgeneration.T:Yes,someonepredictedthatthelastdropofwaterintheworldwouldbethetearofhumanbeing’s.Ithinkallofusshouldpayattentiontoourenvironment,andmakeourcontributionstoimprovingtheenvironment.S:I’msointerestedinphysics.AndIhavereadStephenHawking’sABriefHistoryofTimetwice.IhopeIwillbeascientistlikehim.Asweallknow,thedevelopmentofoursocietywillgohandinhandwiththedevelopmentofscience.T:Yeah,Ican’tagreewithyoumore.Scienceplaysanimportantpartinthedevelopmentofoursociety.Therearesomanyexamplesinthehistoryofhumanbeings.Ss:...　T:I’msogladtoshareyourdreams.Yourambitionandcarefulthoughtsreallyleaveagoodandamazingimpressiononme.Ilikethem.Inthisunit,youwilllearnsomethingabout“Greatscientists”.Maybeyouwillknowwhatyouneedinyoureffortstorealizeyourdreamsafterwetalkaboutsomeworld-famousscientists.Beforewecometo“Warmingup”,I’dlikeyoutocometothenewwordsinthisunit,whichwillhelpyoutolearnthisunit.Step3WordpuzzlesT:OpenyourbooksandturntoPage92.Let’sreadthewordsandexpressionstogether.(Letthestudentsreadthewordsandexpressionstogether.Helpthempronouncethenewwordsandexpressionscorrectly.Latergivethemsometimetopractisereadingandremembersomeeasyandimportantones.Givemorehelptothosewhoarepoorinpronunciation.)T:Herearesomedefinitionsofsomeofthewordsfromthisunit.Pleaseworkinpairsandmatchthewordswiththeirdefinitions.(groupcompetition)Words　　DefinitionsorexplanationsA.examine1.generalprinciplesofanartorscienceB.repeat2.sayordoagainC.theory3.atonce;withoutdelayD.immediately4.lookat...carefullyinordertolearnaboutorfrom...E.complete5.ofgreatvalue,worthoruse,F.valuable6.havingallitsparts;whole;finishedG.announce7.makeknownH.control8.comeorbringtoanendI.positive9.powertoorderordirectJ.conclude10.quitecertainorsureT:Now,let’schecktheanswers.A—4,B—2,C—1,D—3,E—6,F—5,G—7,H—9,I—10,J—8.Youhavedoneagoodjob.Iwillgiveyousomemoreminutestogooverallthewordsandexpressionsandthenfillintheblankswithproperformsofsomeofthemfromthisunit.1.“AllroadsleadtoRome,”heencouragedmeafterIfailedtheentranceexamination.2.Thissentencedoesn’tmakeanysense.3.OurEnglishteacherisnotonlystrictwithusbutalsofriendlytous.4.Heisgood-looking,apartfromhisnose.5.Itisannouncedthatthespacecraft,ShenzhouⅥ,landedontheearthsuccessfully.6.ItisnotTombutyouwhoaretoblame.7.In1995,theChinesegovernmentputforwardaplanfor“rejuvenatingthenationbyrelyingonscienceandeducation”.AndithashelpedChinesescientistsmakemanybreakthroughs.8.Haveyoudrawnanyconclusionafteryoureadthispassage?T:Welldone.Somuchforthelearningofthenewwordsandexpressions.Step4BrainstormingT:Nowlet’scometothetitleofthisunitGreatscientists.Whenwetalkaboutgreatscientists,whatwillcomeintoyourmind(s)?Wewillgoonourcompetition.S1:MadameCurie,whogottwoNobelPrizes,oneforphysicsandtheotherforchemistry,isreallyoutstandingamongallthewomenscientists.S2:ItremindsmeofthegreatinventornamedThomasAlvaEdisonandoneofhisfamoussayings“Geniusisonepercentinspirationandninety-ninepercentperspiration.”S3:Yes,weleadabetterlifenowwiththehelpofscience.WithoutEdison,maybenowwearestilllivinginadarkworld.Theyreallymakeourlifeeasierandmorecomfortable.S4:IalsothinkofoneofthequotesfromAlbertEinstein,“Imaginationismoreimportantthanknowledge.”S5:Allthescientistsaredevotedtothecareerthattheychoose,andtheysetgoodexamplestousinourwork.S6:Takeallthescientistsforexample,ifwewanttobesuccessfulinthefuture,weshouldnotonlylearnsomethingfromourtextbooks,butalsotakepartinsocialpracticeandgetclosetonaturetolearnmoreaboutit.S7:Ilikeplantsverymuch.Ijustthinkofthetwokeyscientistsinthefieldofbotany,CarlLinnaeusandJosephBanks.Theformeronelaidthefoundationfortheclassificationofplants,whilethelatteronealsomadegreatcontributionstothedevelopmentanddirectionofbotany.Ss:...　T:I’mgladtoseethatyouhaveagreatdealofpreviousknowledgeoffamousscientistsintheworld.Step5PreviousknowledgeT:Nowlet’smatchsomeofthegreatscientistswiththeirfamousdiscoveries,inventionsortheories.Letmeseewhoisthequickestinmindandactionandcangetalltheanswerscorrect.FamousscientistsDiscoveries/Inventions/Theories,A.IsaacNewton1.Evolution(进化论)B.CharlesDarwin2.DiscoveryofRadium（镭）C.MadameCurie3.Newton’sLawD.AlbertEinstein4.ElectricbulbE.ThomasAlvaEdison5.TheoryofRelativityF.NicolausCopernicus6.SeismographG.StephenHawking7.ABriefHistoryofTimeH.ZhangHeng8.Theearthmovesaroundthesun.(Checktheanswerswithallthestudents:A—3,B—1,C—2,D—5,E—4,F—8,G—7,H—6.)T:Sinceyouhaveabetterunderstandingofsomeofthegreatscientists,let’splayagame.Pleaseworkingroupsanddescribeoneofthegreatscientists,andthenletotherstudentsguesswhoyouaretalkingabout.Group1:Intheeighteenthcentury,therelivedagreatscientistwhoconductedanumberofexperimentsinwhichheshowedwhatelectricityis.Oncehedidafamouskiteexperimentonastormyday,andprovedthatlighteningandelectricityarethesamething.S:BenjaminFranklin.Group2:ItissaidthatthisEnglishgentlemanwassittinginhisgardenonedaywhensuddenlyhewashitbyafallingapple.Thestoryisprobablynottrue,butthismandidmentionthathegotoneofhisbest-knownideaswhilewatchingapplesfallfromatree.Hisnamemakesyouthinkthathewasnottoointerestedinoldthings.Hediscoveredtheforceofgravity,andhedrewupasystemofhowobjectsmove.Hislawsformotionarestillusedinphysicstoday,atleastinschoolsanduniversities.S:SirIssacNewton.Group3:Foodiswhatsetsthisgreatmindonfire.Rice,tobeexact.Thisgreatmindhasspentmostofhislifelookingforwaystohelpfarmersgrowmorericesothatallofuswillhaveenoughfoodtoeat.Heisknownasthefatherofmodernrice,butbecauseofhislongfriendshipwithallthefarmersinChina,hewouldratherbeknownas“thefarmer”.S:YuanLongping.Group4:Hewasbornon8January1942inOxford,England.Hehasworkedonthebasiclawswhichgoverntheuniverse.HeshowedthatEinstein’sGeneralTheoryofRelativityimpliedspaceandtimewouldhaveabeginningintheBigBangandanendinblackholes.Hehasthreepopularbookspublished:hisbestsellerABriefHistoryofTime,BlackHolesandBabyUniversesandOtherEssaysandmostrecentlyin2001,TheUniverseinaNutshell.S:StephenHawking.Ss:...T:Welldone.Step6QuizT:Youhavealreadyknownsomeinformationaboutsomeofthegreatscientists.Nowlet’sdoaquiz,tryingtofindoutwhothesescientistsare.QuizQuestions1.Whichscientistdiscoveredthatobjectsinwaterareliftedupbyaforcethathelpsthemfloat?2.Whowroteabookexplaininghowanimalsandplantsdevelopedastheenvironment,changed?3.Whoinventedthefirststeamengine?4.Whousedpeastoshowhowphysicalcharacteristicsarepassedformparentstotheirchildren?5.Whodiscoveredradium?6.Whoinventedthewayofgivingelectricitytoeverybodyinlargecities?7.Whowasthepainterthatstudieddeadbodiestoimprovehispaintingofpeople?8.Whoinventedalamptokeepminerssafeunderground?9.Whoinventedtheearliestinstrumenttotellpeoplewhereearthquakeshappened?10.Whoputforwardatheoryaboutblackholes?Checktheanswerswiththestudents.1.Archimedes　2.CharlesDarwin　3.JamesWatt　4.GregorMendel5.MadameCurie6.Faraday　7.Leonardodavinci　8.HumphreyDavy9.ZhangHeng10.StephenHawkingT:Pleaseworkingroupsandhaveadiscussiontofindasmuchinformationaspossibleaboutthesetengreatscientists.(Theteacherhadbetterjoininthediscussionandgivethemsomeguidancewhenevernecessary.Afterthediscussion,asksomestudentstogiveashortreportaboutwhatthegrouphavediscussed.)(Refertotheinformationaboutthesescientistsbelow,andvariousanswersarepossible.)Step7PracticeT:Todaywehavelearnedalotaboutgreatscientistsintheworld.Wecanlearnfromthemtoliveourdreams.Andweteachersaretoowillingtohelpyou.Inyouropinion,whatshouldourschool/teachers/studentsdototapthestudents’potential?S:Ourschoolshouldgivethestudentsmorechancestotakepartinsocialpractice.S:Ourteachersshouldhelpthestudentsusetheirimaginations.S:Westudentsshouldsolvetheproblemsonourown.(Askmorestudentstogivetheiropinions.Theteachershouldencouragethem,jointhem,praisethem,andmakecommentsontheirideas.)Step8Discussion(GroupCompetition)T:Yourideasaresowonderfulandamazing.Iadmirethemverymuch.Nowlet’scometoourtopic.Topic1:Whatcanyoulearnfromthesescientists?Topic2:Whatqualitiesshouldwehavetobeasuccessfulman?(Givethestudentsseveralminutestohaveadiscussion.Thenletthemhaveagroupcompetition.)Step9SummingupT:Inthisperiod,wehavetalkedalotaboutgreatscientists.Youhavealotofpreviousknowledgeandyouarefullofimaginationandcreativity.Thosescientistssetgoodexamplestous.AndIthinkallofusarehappyaboutlearningmoreofthem.Afterclass,it’sbettertoreadsomebooksaboutthemandyoucansurftheInternettogetmoreinformation.AndI’dlikeyoutomakea“ScientistsAlbum”inthefollowingweek.TheDesignoftheWritingontheBlackboardUnit1　Greatscientists,Period1　WelcometotheUnitBrainstormingResearchandActivitiesDIY　　1.Coveraglassofwaterwithapieceofthickpaper.Putonehandonthepaperandturntheglassupsidedown.Slowlytakeyourhandaway.Whathappens?Why?2.Filloneglasswithfreshwaterandanotherglasswithsaltwater.Putanicecubeineachglass.Whathappens?Why?3.Findoutasmanyfamoussayingsfromthosescientistsaspossible.ReferenceforTeaching1.CharlesDarwinwasborninShrewsbury(shropshire)toamoderatelywealthyfamilywithastrongintellectualheritage.Hisgrandfather,ErasmusDarwin,wasaphysician,poetandbiologistwholaidsomeofthegroundworkforthegrandson’srevolutionaryideas.CharlesattendedChrist’sCollegeatCambridgewithinitialthoughtsofenteringtheclergy,butsoontookupstudiesinbiology,zoologyandgeology.From1831to1836,heservedasanaturalistaboardtheHMSBeagleonitsscientificmissiontoSouthAmericaandthePacific.BackinEngland,hepublishedaseriesofscientifictreatiseswhichestablishedhisreputationasoneoftheprominentthinkersofhisday.From1842onwards,helivedonacountryestateinKentandpursuedhisstudiesamongitsgardensandlivestock.By1844,hehadwrittentheinitialdraftofhisgroundbreakingtreatiseonevolutionandnaturalselection.However,heleftthisworkunpublishedforseveralyears,preferringtorefineandelaborateitscoreideas.In1858,hereadaforthcomingpaperbyafellowscientistAlfredRussellWallacewhosethesiscloselyparalleledDarwin’sownunpublishedideas,aneventwhichpushedDarwintogopublicwithhisownresearch.BothWallace’sandDarwin’spaperswerepresentedtotheLinneanSocietyinafamousJuly,1858meeting.DarwinpublishedTheOriginofSpeciesbyMeansofNaturalSelectionin1859,sparkingdecadesofcontentiousdebatewhichultimatelyledtotheuniversalscientificrecognitionofDarwin’sthesis.Inlateryears,hedevelopedhisideasfurtherinmonographsondifferenttypesofplantandanimallife.Notes:Shrewsbury:什鲁斯伯里[英国英格兰西部城市]physician:内科医生(注意区分physicist,物理学家)revolutionary:创新的HMS:（英国）皇家海军舰船(Her/HisMajesty’sShip)treatises:论文2.StephenWilliamHawkingwasbornon8January1942(300yearsafterthedeathof,Galileo)inOxford,England.Hisparents’housewasinnorthLondon,butduringtheSecondWorldWarOxfordwasconsideredasaferplacetohavebabies.Whenhewaseight,hisfamilymovedtoStAlbans,atownabout20milesnorthofLondon.AtelevenStephenwenttoStAlbansSchool,andthenontoUniversityCollege,Oxford,hisfather’soldcollege.StephenwantedtodoMathematics,althoughhisfatherwouldhavepreferredmedicine.MathematicswasnotavailableatUniversityCollege,sohedidPhysicsinstead.AfterthreeyearsandnotverymuchworkhewasawardedafirstclasshonoursdegreeinNaturalScience.StephenthenwentontoCambridgetodoresearchinCosmology,therebeingno-oneworkinginthatareainOxfordatthetime.HissupervisorwasDenisSciama,althoughhehadhopedtogetFredHoylewhowasworkinginCambridge.AftergaininghisPh.D.hebecamefirstaResearchFellow,andlateronaProfessorialFellowatGonvilleandCaiusCollege.AfterleavingtheInstituteofAstronomyin1973StephencametotheDepartmentofAppliedMathematicsandTheoreticalPhysics,andsince1979hasheldthepostofLucasianProfessorofMathematics.Thechairwasfoundedin1663withmoneyleftinthewilloftheReverendHenryLucas,whohadbeentheMemberofParliamentfortheUniversity.ItwasfirstheldbyIsaacBarrow,andthenin1663byIsaacNewton.StephenHawkinghasworkedonthebasiclawswhichgoverntheuniverse.WithRogerPenroseheshowedthatEinstein’sGeneralTheoryofRelativityimpliedspaceandtimewouldhaveabeginningintheBigBangandanendinblackholes.TheseresultsindicateditwasnecessarytounifyGeneralRelativitywithQuantumTheory,theothergreatScientificdevelopmentofthefirsthalfofthe20thCentury.Oneconsequenceofsuchaunificationthathediscoveredwasthatblackholesshouldnotbecompletelyblack,butshouldemitradiationandeventuallyevaporateanddisappear.Anotherconjectureisthattheuniversehasnoedgeorboundaryinimaginarytime.Thiswouldimplythatthewaytheuniversebeganwascompletelydeterminedbythelawsofscience.HismanypublicationsincludeTheLargeScaleStructureofSpacetimewithGFREllis,GeneralRelativity:AnEinsteinCentenarySurvey,withWIsrael,and300YearsofGravity,withWIsrael.StephenHawkinghastwopopularbookspublished:hisbestsellerABriefHistoryofTime,andhislaterbook,BlackHolesandBabyUniversesandOtherEssays.ProfessorHawkinghastwelvehonorarydegrees,wasawardedtheCBEin1982,andwasmadeaCompanionofHonourin1989.Heistherecipientofmanyawards,medalsandprizesandisaFellowofTheRoyalSocietyandaMemberoftheUSNationalAcademyofSciences.StephenHawkingcontinuestocombinefamilylife(hehasthreechildrenandonegrandchild),andhisresearchintotheoreticalphysicstogetherwithanextensiveprogrammeoftravelandpubliclectures.3.HumphryDavy,awoodcarver’sson,wasborninPenzancein1778.AfterbeingeducatedinTruro,DavywasapprenticedtoaPenzancesurgeon.In1797hetookupchemistryandwastakenonbyThomasBeddoes,asanassistantathisMedicalPneumaticInstitutioninBristol.Hereheexperimentedwithvariousnewgasesanddiscoveredtheanestheticeffectoflaughinggas(nitrousoxide).DavypublisheddetailsofhisresearchinhisbookResearches,ChemicalandPhilosophical(1799).ThisledtoDavybeingappointedasalecturerattheRoyalInstitution.Hewasatalentedteacherandhislecturesattractedlargeaudiences.In1806DavypublishedOnSomeChemicalAgenciesofElectricity.Thefollowingyearhe,discoveredthatthealkalisandalkalineearthsarecompoundsubstancesformedbyoxygenunitedwithmetallicbases.Healsousedelectrolysistodiscovernewmetalssuchaspotassium,sodium,barium,strontium,calciumandmagnesium.DavywasnowconsideredtobeBritain’sleadingscientistandin1812wasknightedbyGeorgeⅢ.Withhisassistant,MichaelFaraday,Davytravelledabroadinvestigatinghistheoryofvolcanicaction.In1815HumphryDavyinventedasafetylampforuseingassycoalmines,allowingdeepcoalseamstobemineddespitethepresenceoffiredamp(methane).ThisledtosomecontroversyasGeorgeStephenson,workinginacollierynearNewcastle,alsoproducedasafetylampthatyear.Bothmenclaimedthattheywerefirsttocomeupwiththisinvention.OneofDavy’smostimportantcontributionstohistorywasthatheencouragemanufacturerstotakeascientificapproachtoproduction.Hisdiscoveriesinchemistryhelpedtoimproveseveralindustriesincludingagriculture,miningandtanning.SirHumphryDavydiedin1829.4.LeonardodaVinci(b.1452,Vinci,RepublicofFlorence[nowinItaly]—d.May2,1519,Cloux,Fr.),Italianpainter,draftsman,sculptor,architect,andengineerwhosegenius,perhapsmorethanthatofanyotherfigure,epitomizedtheRenaissancehumanistideal.HisLastSuppe(1495-1497)andMonaLisa(1503-1506)areamongthemostwidelypopularandinfluentialpaintingsoftheRenaissance.Hisnotebooksrevealaspiritofscientificinquiryandamechanicalinventivenessthatwerecenturiesaheadofhistime.5.MadamCurieisaFrenchprofessorofphysics.ShewasborninPolandin1867.In1891shewenttostudyinParisUniversitybecauseatthattimewomenwerenotadmittedtouniversitiesinPoland.WhenshewasstudyinginParis,shelivedapoorlife,butsheworkedveryhard.In1895shemarriedPierreCurie,andthentheyworkedtogetherontheresearchintoradioactivematter.Theydiscoveredtwokindsofradioactivematter—poloniumandradium.In1904sheandherhusbandweregiventheNobelPrizeforphysics.In1906Pierredied,butMariewentonworking.ShereceivedasecondNobelPrizeforChemistryin1911.SoshebecamethefirstscientistintheworldtowintwoNobelPrizes.6.JamesWatt:Britishengineerandinventorwhomadefundamentalimprovementsinthesteamengine,resultinginthemodern,high-pressuresteamengine(patented1769).7.GregorMendelwasanAustrianbotanistandfounderofthescienceofgenetics.Throughyearsofexperimentswithplants,chieflygardenpeas,hediscoveredtheprincipleoftheinheritanceofcharacteristicsthroughthecombinationofgenesfromparentcells.8.Archimedes:Greekmathematician,engineer,andphysicist.Amongthemostimportantintellectualfiguresofantiquity,hediscoveredformulasfortheareaandvolumeofvariousgeometricfigures,appliedgeometrytohydrostaticsandmechanics,devisednumerousingeniousmechanisms,suchastheArchimedeanscrew,anddiscoveredtheprincipleofbuoyancy.9.MichaelFaraday(September22,1791—August25,1867)wasaBritishscientist(aphysicistandchemist)whocontributedsignificantlytothefieldsofelectromagnetismandelectrochemistry.HealsoinventedtheearliestformofthedevicethatwastobecometheBunsenburner,whichisusedalmostuniversallyinsciencelaboratoriesasaconvenientsourceofheat.MichaelFaradaywasoneofthegreatscientistsinhistory.Somehistoriansofsciencerefertohimasthegreatestexperimentalistinthehistoryofscience.Itwaslargelyduetohiseffortsthatelectricitybecameaviabletechnology.TheSIunitofcapacitance,thefarad(symbolF)isnamedafterhim.,